Chinese Cinemas and the United States
33
Chinese Film Directors

by Chongping Chen, Maosheng Dong, and Xiaomeng Hu

with special thanks to Dr. Mera Moore

During a fall 2008 Cinema Studies course at the University of Pennsylvania, we began designing a website in English, with parts also provided in Chinese.[1] The Chinese Film Directors site examines 33 directors of Chinese heritages whose films have reached audiences in the United States: http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~chenc3/website/home.html. Most of the directors originated in China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, although some were born elsewhere, such as Macau, Malaysia, and the U.S.[2] Several are U.S. citizens, some have lived and worked in the U.S., and others access American viewers by means of international film festivals and global distribution outlets. Along with this introductory overview, we briefly introduce the lives of the 33 directors: their childhoods, educations, and cinematic careers. Another section of the website gives the directors’ filmographies, with film titles linked to informative sites.[3] For an alphabetized listing of the directors, see Appendix A. For a chronological listing, see Appendix B.

Although we have sought to provide a representative sample of directors whose works have been received by American audiences, we recognize that there is no one such thing as “Chinese cinema.” The article “Introduction, or, What’s in an ‘s’?” by Chris Berry and Laikwan Pang emphasizes the necessity to perceive Chinese cinematic movements from multiple perspectives, employing in place of “cinema” the term “cinemas.” Even within specific geographical areas plural traditions exist. Our investigation covers a variety of late 20th and early 21st century Chinese film directors from King Hu to Tze Chun.[4]

In this introductory essay, we offer some information on Fifth and Sixth Generation directors working in mainland China whose works have attracted spectators worldwide. We also summarize directors among the New Wave and Second Wave movements in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Finally, we discuss some current transnational directors.[5] While this overview section talks about directors, we rarely mention their films, reserving those discussions for the individual biographies. We recommend a 2005 list provided by the website Monkey Peaches: “Hong Kong [24th] Film Awards’ List of the Best 100 Chinese Motion Pictures” http://www.monkeypeaches.com/050316A.html, with the list created by Hong Kong filmmakers participating in that year’s conference. Today, more than ten years following the handover back to China, Hong Kong continues to play a major role in global promotion of Chinese cinemas, as evidenced by the influential website and blog founded by Hong Kong directors Kenneth Bi and Rosa Li, named after their production company, Kenbiroli http://www.kenbiroli.com/.

The Fifth and Sixth Generations

To look at the Fifth or Sixth Generation, one must first understand the Fourth Generation, a group of filmmakers whose careers began in the early 1960s. The Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s severely restricted the cinema industry, with almost all films made prior to that time banned and with many filmmakers, performing artists, and their families exiled to rural areas. The end of the Cultural Revolution marked reemergence of Fourth Generation directors, among them Huang Jianzhong, Teng Wenji, Wu Tianming, Wu Yigong, Xie Jin, and Zhang Nuanxin. The directors’ experiences living through the Cultural Revolution caused them to become reflective, and when they reappeared during the late 1970s their films presented mature and insightful perspectives. Many members of the Fourth Generation have remained active.

The aftermath of the Cultural Revolution gave rise to a group of Chinese filmmakers known as the Fifth Generation. Most had attended or graduated from the reopened Beijing Film Academy, such as Chen Kaige, Tian Zhuanzhuang, and Zhang Yimou. Their films were popular both domestically and abroad, especially in the U.S. Some question the clarity of the term Fifth Generation. The BBC’s edited H2G2 article titled “Chinese Cinema—‘The Fifth Generation’” offers an insightful description:

“The school, [Beijing Film Academy,] which takes in pupils in blocks rather than yearly entrants, has produced five sets of graduates since its inception hence the title Fifth Generation. Critics of Chinese film also divide the industry into periods: 1905-1932, 1932-1949, 1950-1960, and 1960-1980, also making the directors of the 1980s a Fifth Generation. The title is doubly apt but also doubly confusing.”

Chinese directors who began making films in the early 1980s have worked with a diverse range of styles and subjects. Deviating from traditional methods of storytelling, they have opted for freer, more unorthodox approaches, daring to criticize social problems. One indisputable point is that they increased the international popularity of Chinese cinema.

The expressions Sixth Generation and Seventh Generation are equally complicated. Many hold that the Sixth Generation began around the late 1990s and early 2000s and is still ongoing, while others maintain that a Seventh Generation began making films in the later 2000s. Some directors frequently located in the Sixth Generation are Cao Beiping, Jia Zhangke, Jiang Wen, Lu Chuan, and Wang Xiaoshuai. Coming of age during an era of rapid social transformation and modernization, many Sixth Generation directors utilize long takes and ambient sounds, giving their films a documentary feel. Reflecting an individualistic, anti-romantic style, the films highlight modern urban social problems.

In an interview, Daming Chen comments on the Seventh Generation phenomenon, observing that the usual method for critics and scholars to classify the generations has consisted of examining only “graduates from the Beijing Film Academy.” Emphasizing that many current prominent directors did not graduate from that institution, he suggests abandonment of the expression “Generation” altogether, stating, “I think they don’t use this term” today. Whether or not a Seventh Generation has emerged, films by mainland directors of the early 21st century are attracting spectators beyond China.

Their films sometimes screen at international film festivals. Some are distributed in cooperation with U.S. and European companies. Graduates of the Beijing Film Academy in 1989 include the directors Xueyang Hu, Daming Chen, and Cao Baoping. Their fellow filmmakers Ann Hu, Sherwood Hu, Ma Liwen, and Ying Liang come from equally accomplished backgrounds. Others such as Joe Chow, Dayyan Eng, Jin Chen, Guan Hu, Hou Yang, Huo Jianqi, Li Hong, Teng Huatao, Xiu Jinglei, Zhang Jiarui, Zhang Yibai, and Zhuang Yuxin are similarly skilled contemporary directors.

Producers in Asian nations, including China, have been targeting seasonal celebrations for film premieres. The director Feng Xiaogang’s career took off in the late 1990s after he established himself in a movie genre known as “Lunar New Year Celebration Films,” which premiere from December to February, around the time of the Chinese New Year and Spring Festival celebrations. Feng’s comedies feature “Beijing-style dialogues,” emblematizing the influence of urban culture. The New Year/Spring Festival period increasingly provides a market for many genres from wuxia histories to romantic dramas.

Hong Kong New Wave and Second Wave

New Wave

During the late 1970s, a group of directors led the Hong Kong New Wave movement in what was then a British colony. With the popularization of television, the film industry suffered losses due to shrinking audiences. The innovations of the New Wave directors resulted in the widespread popularity of their films. The directors infused their realistic films with a sense of Hong Kong identity, focusing on contemporary urban social issues. In addition to using advanced filming and editing technologies, they also emphasized authentic location shooting and the use of rougher sounds to make their films more realistic, impacting Hong Kong culturally and economically.

Leaders of Hong Kong cinema before the New Wave included King Hu, along with the groundbreaking filmmaker Bruce Lee. Both Hu and Lee, along with John Woo, led the way in making wuxia martial-arts films. Hu’s first film appeared in 1966, Lee’s in 1971, and Woo’s in 1973. Woo became one of the first powerhouse Chinese filmmakers who broke down cultural walls to become a global film director.

Other Hong Kong directors have pursued a tradition of realistic cinema. Ann Hui, who directs and produces to the present day, is recognized as the preeminent filmmaker of the New Wave era. In Hong Kong, the 1970s saw the formation of the ICAC (Independent Commission for Anti-Corruption), of which Hui was a member, which scrutinized corruption among the British colonial administration, including the police forces. Under the auspices of the ICAC, she directed seven television episodes for its drama series, two of which the British banned, accusing the film team of dramatizing impermissible topics. Films and television dramas that Hui directed have been celebrated for addressing social issues of the period. Although the New Wave significantly transformed Hong Kong cinema, at the time, few producers would support unorthodox filmmakers. The directors Christine Choi, Mabel Cheung and her partner and husband Alex Law, Sammo Hung, and Wayne Wang emerged during the New Wave and continued into the Second Wave.

Second Wave

During the late 1980s, the Second Wave hit Hong Kong cinema. Like the New Wave, Second Wave directors have addressed contemporary social issues, going beyond what the filmmakers perceive as merely pandering to commercial interests. Directors of the Second Wave have consisted of many from the New Wave, like Ann Hui, Mabel Cheung, and Alex Law. The Second Wave added two new factors: immigration topics and anxieties in anticipation of the 1997 handover of Hong Kong from Britain back to China. Primary Second Wave figures have included Clara Law with her partner and husband Eddie Fong; Wong Kar-wai; and Evans Chan. Many of these are still working directors, so that the Second Wave can be considered as ongoing.

In addition to the tradition of realistic social dramas, Hong Kong is also known for producing wuxia films, action movies, and even the so-called “hopping vampire” genre. Other notable directors of Hong Kong include Stanley Kwan, Fruit Chan, and Tsui Hark, as well as Yan Yan Mak and Jackie Chan—and Corey Yuen Kwai has had a particularly high-profile directing career. The Shaw Brothers company Celestial Pictures has been instrumental in furthering film production in Hong Kong, promoting directors who have worked with them on a webpage titled “Directors and Crew.”

Taiwan New Wave and Second Wave

New Wave

At the end of the 1970s and into the 1980s, Taiwan’s audiences for Taiwan-made movies were decreasing. In addition to facing competition from television, films made in Taiwan also competed with numerous movies imported from Hong Kong and Hollywood. Oscar Chung observes that the government refused to sanction films that the censors did not consider “morally healthy.” At this time, Taiwan was undergoing a good deal of social change. Nationalist Party members, who had held the reigns of power since immediately after WWII, were growing older and dying. The Taiwanese, whose ancestors had arrived from China 400 years prior to the 1895-1945 Japanese Occupation, demanded equal representation in the government. The fall of the Soviet Union was impending. The films of Taiwan were relegated to “kung fu movies,” quickly made, grainy wuxia flicks with minimal plots, of which Hong Kong was the recognized superior producer; domestic soap-opera dramas; and moral-lesson stories. Then came the New Wave. 

Throughout the 1980s, Taiwan’s New Wave movement was characterized by realistic, down-to-earth, and sympathetic portrayals of twentieth-century life in Taiwan, both urban and rural. Hou Hsiao-Hsien began his career in 1980 as a filmmaker, becoming in 1989 the first director from Taiwan to win the Golden Lion Award at the Venice Film Festival. Two years later, in 1982, In Our Time appeared, produced by the Central Motion Picture Corporation, created by four co-directors: Edward Yang, Tao De-chen, Ke Yi-jheng, and Jhang Yi. In an interview, Yang named himself “leader of the Taiwanese new wave,” stating that numerous fellow filmmakers frequently gathered at his home to exchange ideas. To be sure, many credit Yang, who passed away in 2007, for his selfless support of fellow directors and producers in Taiwan.

New Wave directors maintained Taiwan’s tradition of adapting Chinese novels to film, with an emphasis on the daily lives of these island people in the past or the present, sometimes even centering on conflicts between existing Taiwanese and Chinese who arrived in 1949, and other times contending with the struggles of contemporary youth on farms or in cities. New Wave directors tended to produce works containing tragic stories and sad endings, screening not simply in commercial theatres but also in numerous small art houses. Second Wave directors reached out to larger numbers of viewers by adding warmhearted, uplifting movies, while continuing to depict realistic tales set in Taiwan.

Second Wave

The 1990s ushered in Taiwan’s Second Wave. These directors made films that not only exposed institutionalized injustices but did so with creative, suspense-filled plots simultaneously heartwarming and heartbreaking. From Malaysia and then earning his university degree in Taiwan, the director Tsai Ming-Liang began working in Taiwan and Hong Kong. His films have investigated the lively experiences of urban teenagers and young adults under the influences of outside cultures. Sylvia Ai-chia Chang originated in the New Wave and carried over into the Second Wave. Stan Lai and Wu Nien-chen are Second Wave directors, along with Chen Yu-hsun, Hsu Hsiao-ming, Lin Ceng-sheng, and Steve Wang. Ang Lee is a Second Wave director who achieved Hollywood star status and international fame. Rooted in realism and comedy, his early films stress cultural and generational conflicts. A more recent Second Wave director who has achieved international prominence is Wei Te-sheng. Expanding Taiwan’s Second Wave today, digital experiments films by Chu Yen-ping, Alice Yu-ya Wang, Li You-ning, and Lin Jing-jie are on the cutting edge of cinema in Taiwan.

Transnational Chinese-U.S. Directors

Pi-Chun Chang’s article “Globalized Chinese Cinema and Localized Western Theory” suggests that transnational scholarship about Chinese culture should move beyond “binary opposition between the East and the West” (13), from Orientalist reviewers applauding exoticism in Chinese films to anti-Western critics praising Chinese films that condemn Western influences. Edward Said’s well-known theory of Orientalism offers Chang an effective method to interpret transnational Chinese cinemas, by examining Chinese films from the perspective of “self-orientalism” (13). The term transnationalism necessarily implies interfacing among cultures resulting in appropriation and imitation of customs and traditions, particularly regarding East-West relations.

Andrew Grossman’s article “Better Beauty through Technology: Chinese Transnational Feminism and the Cinema of Suffering” examines female characters in films from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Despite the obvious problems of Orientalism in Chinese films “aimed at Westerners,” with plots containing women and girls who suffer, Grossman maintains that Chinese literature and performing arts themselves manifest longstanding traditions of tales depicting “female suffering and martyrdom.” He recommends newer Chinese films that combat this trend. Chang praises the scholarship of Rey Chow, born in Hong Kong and today a professor at Brown University as well as the author of numerous books and articles, for the potential of her reciprocal cultural-translation approach. To Chang and Chow, Chinese films do manifest Westernized influences, yet through a process in which they appropriate and modify those influences; moreover, Chinese films influence and change the Western audiences who view them (Chang 17-18).

All 33 filmmakers in this study have achieved international reputations with a particular appeal to U.S. audiences. We hope that those interested in Chinese cinemas will appreciate our study concentrating on a variety of directors for feature-length films intended specifically for U.S. viewers. They include John Woo, Wayne Wang, and Corey Yuen from Hong Kong; Ang Lee and Justin Lin from Taiwan; and Joan Chen and Sherwood Hu from mainland China—some of whom have become U.S. permanent residents or U.S. citizens. Evans Chan, born in China but raised in Macau and Hong Kong, today lives and works in New York City. Born in San Francisco and descended from multiple Chinese heritages, Arthur Dong is one of the most highly respected American documentary directors, notably with his recent film Hollywood Chinese (2008). The acknowledged original promoter of U.S. wuxia cinema, Bruce Lee, was also born in San Francisco. Emerging director Tze Chun was born in Chicago.

Offering filmmakers of Chinese heritages access to U.S. audiences, since the year 2000, at least sixteen Asian and Asian American film festivals have been established in the U.S. (see Appendix C). Dedicated to cinema by Asian Americans, Greg Pak’s 2005 website is Asian American Film http://www.asianamericanfilm.com. U.S. venues that host films by Asians and Asian Americans range from the Aurora Picture Show in Houston, Texas, to The ImaginAsian in New York City. Chinese directors of independent cinema in the U.S. include Shu Lea Chang, Christine Choi, Deborah Gee, Lee Mun Wah, Greg Pak, Pam Tom, and Tze Chun, and the team of Tom Kim and Chris Chow. Like many directors worldwide, some of these filmmakers have utilized digital innovations.

More Transnational Directors

Chinese Canadian

Born in China, living and working in Canada, documentary filmmaker Yang Yue Qing has made films about Chinese women shown on television in Canada, the U.K., and the U.S. Other Chinese Canadian directors include Yung Chang, Karin Lee, Jari Osbourne, Mina Shum, and Paul Wong. Two of Canada’s film festivals are British Columbia’s Vancouver Asian Film Festival http://www.vaff.org/ founded in 1995 and the Toronto Reel Asian International Film Festival http://www.reelasian.com/ founded in 1997.

Chinese Australian

The Brisbane International Film Festival http://www.biff.com.au/biff_2006/ founded in 1995 centers around films from Asia and the Pacific. Clara Law and Eddie Fong have made major contributions to internationalizing Chinese cinema; she was born in Macau and he in Hong Kong, and now both reside in Australia. Originally from mainland China and relocating to Australia, Ann Hu worked in the business field and invested her salary wisely, becoming a millionaire overnight. She used her resources to direct and produce high-quality Chinese films cooperatively among various business and national concerns. Coordinating and traveling among China, Taiwan, and the U.S., she directed the first film to be co-produced between Taiwan and China, Shadow Magic (2000).

Malaysia, Singapore, and Beyond

Singapore’s Asian Festival of First Films http://www.asianfirstfilms.com/ was founded in 2005. Two years later, in 2007, the Journal of Chinese Cinemas appeared, arguing in favor of the conception understanding Chinese motion pictures from wider perspectives.[6] Tsai Ming-Liang—who was born in Malaysia into a family of Chinese background and grew up watching movies made in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia—today operates out of Taiwan. His films express a unique sense of social conscience. Tze Chun comes from a family with origins in China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore. Born in Chicago and growing up near Boston, Tze has made celebrated short films, has worked in television, and has directed a film screened at the 2009 Sundance Film Festival, Children of Invention.

While globalization increasingly influences the world’s economies, Chinese cinemas have emerged as dominant players in global entertainment industries. Socioeconomic transformations have opened doors for innovations by Chinese film directors, who offer themes with transnational dimensions, leading Chinese films to achieve greater attention worldwide. Maintaining solidarity as a cultural group—yet often emigrating across many geographical areas—the Chinese will continue to make influential motion pictures.[7]

Notes

[1] The following are some informative sources in English about Chinese motion pictures:
Books: Berry, Michael, ed. Speaking in Images. Chow, Rey. Sentimental Fabulations. Dissanayake, Wimal, and Kwok-kan Tam, eds. New Chinese Cinema. Xu, Gary G. Sinascape: Contemporary Chinese Cinema. Zhang, Yingjin, and Zhiwei Xiao, eds. Encyclopedia of Chinese Film. Zhang, Zhen, ed. The Urban Generation.
Print periodicals: Journal of Chinese Cinemas. Modern Chinese Literature and Culture.
Websites: Chen, Peijin, and Erik Petersen, eds. China Film Journal. Denton, Kirk A., ed. Modern Chinese Literature and Culture Research Center. Kraicer, Shelly, ed. A Chinese Cinema Website. Lü, Pin, ed. Chinese Movie Database and Blog. Pak, Greg, ed. Asian American Film. Zhang, Yingjin, ed. Chinese Cinema Web-Based Learning Center.
Zhejiang University, ed. China Media Research.

[2] With the 1997 handover of Hong Kong to the People’s Republic of China, the British colony became a province of China. To refer to the PRC, we use terms like “China” and “mainland China.” Because the cinematic history of Hong Kong spans the colonial and re-nationalized periods, we often discuss Hong Kong as an individual area. Taiwan—which contains descendants of indigenous Aboriginal peoples, Taiwanese who traveled there from China about 500 years ago, and more recent arrivals from China in 1949— likewise is mentioned in an individual context due to its unique geography and history.

[3] This study of Chinese film directors is neither intended to be, nor should it be considered, an inclusive canon of all significant directors of Chinese heritages during the time periods under consideration, but rather is merely a suggested listing of 33 directors—focusing on prolific distribution, artistic and popular recognition, and factors related to our research interests. If you have a suggestion for a director our team should consider adding to this study, please feel free to email webmaster Chongping Chen chenc3@seas.upenn.edu.

[4] This study refers to directors’ names by using the Romanized style preferred by the director, whether pinyin or Wade-Giles, and whether surname first as in the Chinese way, or surname last as in the English way. Some directors have English given names. Within each of the 30 biographies, we provide all names by which a director is known. The only issue we could not resolve is regarding the preference of Wong Kar-wai, whose name also appears as Wong Kar-Wai. We have used Wong Kar-wai.

[5] Because we focus on interactions of Chinese cinema with audiences in the United States, we have bypassed discussion of Chinese films in the United Kingdom. We have also omitted mention of Chinese filmmakers who create works predominantly for speakers of Russian, French, Arabic, Spanish, and so forth, such as Chinese Mexican directors. By focusing often on directors who screen their works at international film festivals, we have sought to represent directors who reach worldwide audiences.

[6] Two sources investigating Chinese films in Malaysia and Singapore are Zakir Hossein Raju’s article “Filmic Imaginations of the Malaysian Chinese: ‘Mahua Cinema’ as a Transnational Chinese Cinema” and Kenneth Paul Tan’s book Cinema and Television in Singapore: Resistance in One Dimension.

[7] The list of references below includes only those sources mentioned in this introductory overview essay. Additional sources are provided following each director’s short biography. Because our primary intended audience consists of those reading in English, all of our sources are either written in English or provided in English translation. As a result of our intention to create a website accessible to the general public, most of our sources come from the Internet. When we have used a book, we have tried to give a link to the site of the book’s publisher. Bibliographies available on the Internet about Chinese filmmakers include Kirk A. Denton’s “Modern Chinese Film Bibliography” http://mclc.osu.edu/rc/filmbib3.htm, Jerome Silbergeld and Wei Yang’s “A Selected Bibliography of Chinese Cinema” http://tang.princeton.edu/FilmBiblio2004.pdf, and Yingjin Zhang’s “Critical Bibliography” http://chinesecinema.ucsd.edu/biblio_ccwlc.html, all of which provide many additional sources not listed on our bibliographies.

References

Abbas, Ackbar. Hong Kong: Culture and the Politics of Disappearance. Minneapolis: U of Minnesota P, 1997. http://www.upress.umn.edu/Books/A/abbas_hong.html.

Aurora Picture Show. Houston, TX. 16 Mar.2009 http://www.aurorapictureshow.org.

Berry, Chris, and Laikwan Pang. “Introduction, or, What’s in an ‘s’?” Journal of
Chinese Cinemas 2, 1: 2008. Rpt. Atypon Link. 22 Jan. 2009 http://wwatypon-link.com/INT/doi/pdf/10.1386/jcc.2.1.3_2.

Berry, Chris, and Mary Farquhar. China on Screen: Cinema and Nation. New York: Columbia UP, 2006.
http://cup.columbia.edu/book/978-0-231-13706-5/china-on-screen.

Berry, Michael, ed. Speaking in Images: Interviews with Contemporary Chinese Filmmakers. New York: Columbia UP, 2005.
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Bi, Kenneth, and Rosa Li. Kenbiroli. 2000-2009. Mar. 2009 http://www.kenbiroli.com/

Bordwell, David. Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the Art of Entertainment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 2000.  http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/BORPLA.html.

Chang, Pi-Chun. “Globalized Chinese Cinema and Localized Western Theory.” China Media Research 2009: 10-20. Zhejiang University. 22 Mar. 2009
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Chow, Rey. Sentimental Fabulations: Contemporary Chinese Films: Attachment in the Age of Global Visibility. New York: Columbia UP, 2007.
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http://www.celestialpictures.com/level2_directors.cfm.

Dissanayake, Wimal, and Kwok-kan Tam, eds. New Chinese Cinema. New York: Oxford UP, 1998. http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/24169/subject/FilmStudies/?view=usa&ci=9780195906073.

East-West Film Journal. 1986-1994. 22 Nov. 2008
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Elley, Derek. “Midrange Asian Films Go Overlooked.” Variety. 9 Apr. 2008. 27 Mar. 2009  http://www.variety.com/index.asp?layout=festivals&jump=story&id=1061&articleid=VR1117983814&cs=1.

Feng, Peter X, ed. Screening Asian Americans. Rutgers UP, 2002. http://rutgerspress.rutgers.edu/acatalog/__Screening_Asian_Americans_871.html.

“The Fourth Generation of Chinese Directors.” China Culture.Org. 2003. China Daily. 17 Jan. 2009 http://www1.chinaculture.org/library/2008-01/18/content_67749.htm.

Gao, Pat. “Taipei Storyteller.” Taiwan Review. 1 Dec. 2007. 22 Jan. 2009 http://taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw/site/tr/ct.asp?xItem=24950&CtNode=128.

Grossman, Andrew. “Better Beauty through Technology: Chinese Transnational Feminism and the Cinema of Suffering.” Bright Lights Film Journal. 2002. 22 Nov. 2008
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“Hong Kong New Wave: 1979–1984.” Film Encyclopedia. 22 Jan. 2009 http://www.filmreference.com/encyclopedia/Criticism-Ideology/Hong-Kong-HONG-KONG-NEW-WAVE-1979-1984.html.

“Hong Kong [24th] Film Awards’ List of the Best 100 Chinese Motion Pictures.” Monkey Peaches.  2005. 27 Mar. 2009 http://www.monkeypeaches.com/050316A.html.

The ImaginAsian. New York City. 16 Mar. 2009  http://www.theimaginasian.com/index3.php.

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Kraicer, Shelly, ed. A Chinese Cinema Website. 1996-2007. 16 Mar. 2009 http://www.chinesecinemas.org/.

Li, Dian. “Clara Law: Cheuk-yiu Law, Zhuoyao Luo.” Senses of Cinema. Aug. 2003. 16 Dec. 2008 http://archive.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/03/law.html.

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Ma, Ran. “The Fifth Generation Cinema and Its Cross-Cultural Interpretation.” Cina Oggi: Video, Pictures, Cinema, Design from Far East Asia. 17 Sept. 2007. 16 Dec. 2008 http://cinaoggi.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=83&Itemid=195.

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